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Rajagala Archaeological Reserve situated in the Ampara district of Eastern Sri Lanka had been initially identified as the “Grikumhiila Tissa Pabbatha Viharaya” of which “Girikumhiilla” depicting the name of Crocodile Mountain s situated looks like a lying crocodile to the distance and using part of the name of the King Lajjatissa who build this monastery. The monastic remains of the monastery could be identified on the mountain approached through two stone stairways build in the dense forest blending with the slope of the mountain. The common buildings such as Stupas, Refectory, Uposathagra, Hot Water Bath House, A house with two large stone bowls, a Chapter House, Lahabthage, a small tank and several other buildings are scattered in this area. The dewing units of the mediation monks were located in the rocky hill above this area converting the caves into dwellings. As much as about 50 such dwellings in which about 500 monks would have lived together could be identified in this area. This monastic complex has been vacated due to the South Indian invasions in 993 and 1017AD and had been gradually deteriorated due to the natural causes and vandalism by treasure hunters in near past.

After the commencement of the Archaeological Survey of Sri Lanka in 1890 there had been several attempts to document the archaeological remains in the Rajagala but no systematic archaeological activities were carried out. After the end of the civil war the Department of Archaeology has decided to commence archaeological activities and invited the Department of History and Archaeology of the University of Sri Jayewardenepura to take over the site for the provision of all necessary archaeological services in order to arrest the deterioration process prevailing in the site and to present it for the fulfilment of needs of the present and future societies. Since 01st September 2012 activities are carried out as a joint project of the Department of Archaeology and the University of Sri Jayewardenepura of Sri Lanka. Over the years several international pre-historic research programmes were also conducted in the monastery with the participations of national and international universities and organisations. This monastery is now included in the World Heritage tentative list of the UNESCO.

During the Stone Age availability of raw materials plays a significant role in stone tool production. Prehistoric tools and associated lithic materials provide us a lot of information regarding their movement, lithic utilization and behavioral pattern. An important aspect in the study of their manufacturing technology is that they had to expend a good amount of effort in the production of stone tools. Besides, they would have used better quality raw materials for achieving the desired shape of tools. The quality of raw materials determines the functions of tools. Availability of such qualitative lithic raw materials in the Bargarh upland had also attracted the prhistoric people. The ongoing paper emphasizes identifying the probable source of raw material in the study area. As this region had provided an abundance of qualitative raw materials since prehistoric time in its riverbank, hill slopes, and rocky outcrops, an attempt has been to discuss the raw-material utilization pattern in microlithic settlements of Ranj valley based on procured lithic artefacts from various sites.

Keywords: Microlith, Chert, Quartz, Agate, Burin, Scrapper, Denticulate, Mesolithic, Artefacts

South Asia has produced rich evidence of Middle Palaeolithic sites belonging to the Middle and Late Pleistocene. A large number of Middle Palaeolithic sites have been reported in various river valleys of India. The Central Indian river system contains a significant number of Middle Palaeolithic sites. The Son river valley is one of the major river valleys in this region that has yielded dated Late Acheulian to Middle Palaeolithic artefacts. Dated artefact horizons from the Son valley are chronologically significant in the South Asian Palaeolithic. The current research sought to investigate the Mayar River Valley, geographically situated close to the Son Valley. The explorations at the Mayar River Valley have yielded rich evidence of Middle Palaeolithic artefacts, including Levallois and Discoidal core from the stratified context. The Middle Palaeolithic artefacts in the Mayar river valley opens up a new opportunity to understand the nature of Palaeolithic occupation in the adjoining area of the Son valley.

Keywords: Late Pleistocene, Levallois core, Middle Pleistocene, Middle Palaeolithic, Mayar River, Northcentral India, Son Valley.

A suitable landscape is a crucial factor considered by the ancient people to decide which particular environment should be occupied for dwelling. The main focus of this paper is to identify the possible applicable factors for the occupation of a desert landscape during the Prehistoric to Early Historic (Rang Mahal) periods in the Jodhpur district of western Rajasthan.

The present work is a brief observation on the occurrence of different megalithic sites and localities spread in south Jharkhand, particularly, in Porahaat region of West Singhbhum (Chaibasa) district. The region is inhabitant by the Munda and Ho communities, who practice megalithism. There are several megalithic localities in the valley of Bandgaon and the outskirts of the village settlements of Hos in Porahaat plains. The megalithic types in the study area are mainly menhirs, located in isolation, in pairs, and alignments. The present paper is concerned with the typology and distribution pattern of the sites in two different landscapes, i.e. dense forest of a high-altitude valley with 400 to 600 AMSL and the plains with 200 to 300 AMSL of Porahaat region of the district. The paper also concerns to focus on the correlation of ancient megaliths with ethnographic evidence in the region to understand the possible affinity of the present megalithic community with these monuments.

Keywords: Menhirs, Alignments, West Singbhum, Jharkhand, Mundas, Hos, Living tradition

The first five books of the Bible give the narratives of Five Persons namely, Adam, Cain, Noah, Abraham and Moses. It is believed that these Five Persons lived in West Asia. The preferred locations are Lake Van in Turkey for Adam; no specific location for Cain; Mesopotamia for Noah; Mesopotamia and Palestine for Abraham; and Egypt for Moses. The Bible says that Moses led the Hebrews from a place named Mitsrayim—identified with Egypt—to the Promised Land of Yisrael. However, geographical details and the archaeological evidence available at these sites often does not match with the descriptions given in the Bible. We explore whether these Five Persons may have lived in the Indus Valley and Moses may have led the Exodus from here to Yisrael.

Further, we find remarkable parallels between the Biblical narratives of the Five Persons and the narratives of particular Five Persons in the Hindu texts, namely, Swayambhu Manu, Indra, Vaivaswat Manu, Rama and Krishna. It is believed that these Five Persons lived in larger Indian Subcontinent. The preferred locations are Mount Kailash for Swayambhu Manu; no specific location for Indra; Gujarat- Rajasthan for Vaivaswat Manu; and the Ganges Basin from Rama and Krishna. However, geographical details and the archaeological evidence available at these sites often does not match with the descriptions given in the Hindu texts. We explore whether these Five Persons may have lived in the Indus Valley and Krishna may have led the Yadavas from there to Yisrael.

Lastly, a question for further study is posed: If the geographical descriptions of the Five Persons in the two traditions coalesce in the Indus Valley and their narratives are parallel, might it be that the Five Persons described in the Bible were the same Five Persons described in the Hindu texts.

Bangladesh is home to the largest delta in the world consisted of the Lower Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna river basins. Being located in the tropical region, rich biodiversity, rainfall and abundance of rivers attracted people of different ethnic backgrounds from the early historic period. The paper presents the results of the archaeological survey (2018-20) conducted in Khirtala village of Sirajganj district located in the Barind tract of Lower Brahmaputra Basin. Nine archaeological mounds are identified in the village. Sites are located close to the dried and present river channel of Karatoya River. Most of the archaeological localities are currently inhabited by different ethnic groups, which pose a threat to the archaeological sites.

Keywords: Archaeology; Culture; Ethnography; Human occupation; Lower brahmaputra basin; Settlement.

The Indian sub-continent has a vibrant history of human-snake interaction spanning from the prehistoric period up to modern times. Snakes are an integral part of the ecosystem, agriculture cycle, mythology, folklore, art, iconography, etc., and we see them in depiction, worshipped in rituals, and even venerated in live form across religions; this interaction also includes abuse of snakes, destruction of their habitat, etc., but falls beyond the scope of this paper. When we hear the word ‘snake’ the localised term of ‘Naga’ comes into our mind; the famous ones being Sheshnaga, Muchalinda Naga, etc. This paper will be focusing on Muchalinda Naga, a snake king that appears in Buddhist texts, whose appearance is dated to the 6th Cen. B.C. coinciding with the enlightenment of the Buddha. When a researcher is observing the original Pali Sources, it is noted that there is a clear dichotomy in what is spoken in the text regarding the interaction of Muchalinda and the Buddha and what is depicted specifically in the first few centuries onwards. In order to study iconographic evolution, the researchers will be examining the depictions of ‘Muchalinda Buddha’ from the earliest times and will expatiate on the various developing iconographic features as noted in these depictions over the ages. The paper will try to answer the following questions with an interdisciplinary approach vis-à-vis the type of snake Muchalinda Naga was, the change in his depiction over the centuries, faithfulness of the visual depiction to the textual depiction, the reason behind the evolution of the depiction and lastly Muchalinda’s interaction with the Buddha from a herpetological perspective. For the herpetological perspective, the researcher will be using the scholarly works by Whitaker, R., & Captain, A. (2015), Smith, M., (1981), Gu?nther, A. (1864) and others in order to illustrate their hypothesis.

Keywords: Buddha, Constriction, Coils, Hood, India, King Cobra, Muchalinda, Naga, Snake

The present paper deals with the sculptural remains found in the complex of the Say?li Mah?deva temple at Manali in the Kullu valley of Himachal Pradesh. The study highlights the early medieval transitional development in temple architecture and the sculptural art. During this period different Brahmanical faiths such as ?aivism, Vai??avism and ??ktism, were dominant in the society. The diversity of religious practices can be evident and seen in the scattered images in the Say?li Mah?deva complex. At present most of these relics are in a state of neglect and ruin. The study tries to explore the extent of influence from the Ku???a-art, Gupta-art, and post-Gupta-art registered on the regional style. Further, it probes the extent that sculptors’ technique on the images of li?ga, Um?-Mahe?vara, Mah???suramardin?, Vi??u and Brahm? datable to c. eighth century CE onwards and the transitional period {8th century CE to 11th century CE).

Key words: Archeology, ?sana, Brahm?, Brahmanical, Gupta-art, Ku???a-art, li?ga, Mah???suramardin?, P??ha, Prabh?ma??ala, Sculptural art, ?ilpa-??stra, Um?-Mahe?vara, Vi??u

Cary?s are mystical verses written by or sung by some of the eighty four Mah?siddhas. Composed in dialects, predecessors of Oriya, Bengali, Magadhi or Maithili, they were, and are sung by itinerant yogis, even today. These songs have double meanings and are full of similes and metaphors. It is believed that a s?dhaka or practioner can perceive the real meaning. An attempt is made here to interpret one cary? of Mah?siddha Kukkurip?, which possibly alludes to an episode in the life of Mah?siddha K?nhap? or K?niphn?th, as he is popularly known in Maharashtra. The scenes depicted on the walls of numerous temples in Maharashtra confirm that the event was well known by the 12th-13th centuries. I have linked this cary? with sculptural representations of Mah?siddha K?nhap? and also with a 13th-century Mah?nubh?va text: ’L?lacharitra’. His own cary? given here (presumably written during the last few days of his life) emphasizes that in this world, no one actually comes or goes; all these are mental images or perception of the mind. K?nhu yogi likes the idea that soon he will be part of this voidness that constitutes ultimate reality. This event concluded tragically; nevertheless, K?nhap? will always remain in the hearts of the populace, including scholars, for generations.

KeyWords: Cary?, k?nhap?, Medieval marathi, Translation, Yoga.

Archaeological research involves the study of material culture. History, on the other hand, is built based on the documented evidence from the past. The synthesis of both sheds light on the past human societies and associated landscapes. Most of the time, the excavated remains and textual corroboration are insufficient to rebuild the cultural and historical values for the society at large. As a result, data and its analysis remain restricted in the realms of academia. While this is still relevant to the masses, they cannot connect with it using traditional means of expression such as text, images or physical exhibits in rare cases.

In this paper, we attempt to connect common people with academic research using virtual reality as a medium of expression. VR enables people to relate themselves to the historic landscape and experience it as it could have been. The present project describes the process and results of VR modelling prototype for the medieval city of Pune. A small village situated on a confluence of rivers Mula and Mutha emerged as the capital of the Peshwas empire in the 18th century. For the first time, they developed it as a capital with detailed attention to local amenities and city layouts. The VR model of medieval Pune is a virtual tour of the past.

Keywords: Heritage, History, Modelling, Pune, Virtual Reality